Content:

This book forms one of the series which was started by the Holy Metropolis of Thyateira with the publication of the Greek Orthodox Catechism. This brief sketch of Orthodox Church History is intended, as that work was, mainly for Orthodox Christians, who, being born in countries where their mother tongue is not spoken, of necessity have learned, and do more easily understand, the language of the country of their adoption. This book is not intended for use exclusively by children learning their catechism. It is hoped it will be of interest to Orthodox Christians, who desire to have a brief, but reliable, account of the evolution of the Orthodox Church throughout the centuries of the Christian Era. Furthermore, although now there exist some works in English dealing in a general way with the Orthodox Church, we think this is the first time that a short history of the Orthodox Church, the work of an Orthodox Scholar, has come into the hands of English readers. It is a work that touches upon all the periods of its history, and, above all, the latest period, which, for the most part, has not been studied by the non-Orthodox. The close relations, which, of late especially, have developed between the two Churches, the Orthodox and the Anglican, and the recent contact established between them at the Lambeth Conference, render the contents of a book dealing with the fortunes of the Orthodox Church interesting and timely.

The compiling of this work was entrusted by the Holy Metropolis of Thyateira to the Vicar of the Greek Church in Manchester, the Rev. Constantine Callinicos, the author of many notable religious and theological writings. On the recent publication of an important Commentary on the "Psalms," he received a signal honor at the hands of the Ecumenical Patriarchate which bestowed on him the title, of rare distinction in the Orthodox Church, "Great Oeconomos of the Great Church." The Rev. Callinicos has fulfilled the task entrusted to him with great skill. Not only has he refrained from dwelling upon questions which, while included in the life and history of the Church, have no immediate relation to its essential nature; he has also refused merely to collate material which is easily obtainable in the historical writings of other Churches. His deep-rooted love for, and devotion to, the Orthodox Church, his insistence on historical truth and accuracy, and, finally, the polished style of writing are characteristic of the author's present work, as of all his works.

The translation into English has been zealously carried out by Miss Natzio. The fact that this lady was born and bred in England, and had a successful career at an English University (B. A. and B. Utt. Oxford), has, in itself, a guarantee of the translating accuracy and perfection.

To both the author and the translator, therefore, we express our warmest thanks and give our blessing.

It is our earnest hope that this book, in fulfilling the purpose with which it was written, may help to make the Orthodox Church more widely known; — a Church which, in the past, watered the tree of Christianity when first it was planted on this earth, with the blood of its martyrs, and even today has martyrs to show in its struggle against the powers which plot against its very existence.

+The Metropolitan of Thyateira, GERMANOS

London, Palm Sunday, 1931.

The history of the Church begins on the day of Pentecost, which for this reason has been called the Church's birthday. On that day, in the presence of a hundred and twenty people, the Holy Spirit descended upon the Disciples, and they began to speak in divers tongues, so that Jews from far and wide, who were dwelling in Jerusalem, were amazed at the sudden transformation of the men who only yesterday had been simple fishermen. But the apostle Peter, rising in the midst of them, explained that this transformation was due to Jesus the Nazarene, who though crucified by the Jews, had risen again by the power of God. And on that very day three thousand souls flocked to the new faith. A few days later, as Peter and John were on their way to the temple to pray, a lame beggar lying by the temple gate asked them for alms. "Silver and gold have I none," said Peter; "but such as I have give I thee; in the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, rise up and walk." The lame man was healed, and Peter, holding him by the hand, showed him to the astonished crowds who thronged to see the miracle, as a testimony of the power of Christ. And the three thousand believers thereupon became five thousand.

Thus the first followers of the crucified Christ increased in numbers by leaps and bounds, and formed the first Christian community in Jerusalem. Bound together by ties of mutual love, such as had never before been seen, they ate at common tables, and under the general supervision of the Apostles had all their possessions in common. Soon, however, the Apostles were no longer able to watch over both the material and spiritual needs of so many thousand souls; so, keeping for themselves the spiritual ministry, they appointed seven deacons to organize the provisioning of the community. Foremost among them for wisdom and holiness was Stephen. Filled with holy zeal, he denounced the Jews for their deafness to the voice of the Lord, and so enraged them that, accusing him of blasphemy, they condemned him to death by stoning. "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit!" were his dying words.

The death of Stephen the Martyr was the signal for a great outbreak of persecution against the newly-established Church, which was intolerable to the Jewish authorities as an apostate from the law of Moses. But this local, persecution turned to the advantage of the new faith, because its effect was to scatter the brethren from Jerusalem, where they had hitherto been confined, sending them to carry the seeds of the Gospel not only to other towns of Judaea, but to Samaria, Phenice and Cyprus, and even to Antioch, where for the first time the believers in Christ were given the name of Christians. It was the death of Stephen, too, that first brought into prominence Saul, then still a fanatical Pharisee, savagely attacking the Christian Church, but divinely appointed to become the most ardent and fruitful of the Lord's Apostles. His conversion to Christianity took place in the year A.D. 35 outside Damascus. A great light shone suddenly around him, and the voice of the Savior sounded in his ears: "Saoul, Saoul, why persecutest thou me? it is hard for thee to kick against the pricks." Thereupon he was baptized, changing his name from Saoul to Paul; the Apostles received him into their brotherhood, and, beset by dangers and persecutions, he embarked on those great missionary journeys that were to make Christianity a universal creed.

On his first missionary journey (45-51) Paul set out from Antioch in Syria, and after visiting in turn Seleucia, Cyprus, Perga in Pamphylia, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe, he returned thence to his starting-point, to attend soon afterwards the Apostolic Synod in Jerusalem, where he upheld the independence of Christianity from the forms and ceremonies prescribed by Mosaic law. His second missionary journey (53-55) was undertaken for the purpose of visiting and strengthening in the faith these newly-established communities, but his zeal drove him to Troas, on the further side of Asia Minor, whence he took ship to Europe and founded the Churches of Philippi, Amphipolis, Apollonia, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens and Corinth. And on his third missionary journey (56-59) for some time Paul adopted as his headquarters the great town of Ephesus in Asia Minor, to the chagrin of Diana's votaries. Thence he proceeded to visit the newly-founded Christian communities in Macedonia and Greece, and on his way back preached the Gospel in Mitylene, Chios, Samos, Miletus, Cos, Rhodes, and Tyre in Phenice, returning to Jerusalem by way of Caesarea.

But the Jews, who had never ceased to persecute Paul as a denier and corrupter of their religion, seized him and flung him into prison, first in Jerusalem and then in Caesarea. For two years the Apostle waited in vain for his acquittal by the Roman procurator; under the influence of the Jews, the latter postponed his trial from day to day. At last Paul, as a Roman citizen, claimed his right of direct appeal to Caesar, and thus he was sent in chains to Rome, where after a stormy voyage he arrived in A.D. 62. There, though always under military guard, he lived in a house of his own where he was allowed to receive freely, and preached the Gospel to all and sundry in the great capital of the Roman Empire. At this point, the narrative of the Acts comes to and end. According to certain ancient writers, Paul's martyrdom took place under Nero, in A.D. 64, following immediately on this period of imprisonment. Others, however, affirm that on this occasion he was released, and after undertaking yet a fourth journey "to the farthest west" (i.e. to Spain), he returned to Rome, where he was beheaded in A.D. 66 or 67.

Paul, who devoted nearly all his energies to the conversion of the heathen, has been called the "Apostle to the Gentiles"; Peter, on the other hand, focused his whole attention on the Jews, and is therefore known as the "Apostle of the Circumcision." His baptism of the half-Gentile centurion Cornelius, after receiving in a vision the divine injunction not to call common that which the Lord had cleansed, was a mere episode in the career of a man whose life was devoted exclusively to his fellow-Jews. At first Peter stayed in Jerusalem with the other Apostles, and played an important part in the early stages of Christianity. His life was threatened by Herod Agrippa, to the great satisfaction of the Jews, but after his miraculous escape from prison he soon left Jerusalem and journeyed through Pontus, Galatia, Bithynia, and other parts of Asia Minor. For many years he watched over the Christians of Antioch as their first Bishop; but, like Paul, he came at last to Rome, where, according to tradition, he was crucified in the reign of Nero, head downwards, since he considered himself, even in death, unworthy to be set on a level with his Savior. The story of Peter's martyrdom may be taken as an established fact, being supported both by our Lord's prediction (cf. John 21:18) and by the evidence of ancient writers; that he flourished as Bishop of Rome for twenty-five years is, however, only a myth. In A.D. 51 he was present at the Apostolic Synod at Jerusalem. In A.D. 58 Paul, writing his Epistle to the Romans, does not mention his name, although he sends greetings to many of the faithful in Rome. In A.D. 62 when Paul came to Rome as a prisoner, Peter did not come to greet him, and though Paul wrote various epistles during his stay, not once does he mention him. The historian Eusebius, moreover, speaks of Linus as the first Bishop of Rome.

Like Peter and Paul, the rest of the Apostles also sealed their message with their blood. James the Elder, the brother of John, was beheaded in Jerusalem under Herod Agrippa, according to the indisputable testimony of the Acts. James the Younger, or "Adelphotheos," who became first Bishop of Jerusalem after the departure of the other Apostles, was precipitated from the pinnacle of the temple, according to Hegisippus, and stoned by the Jews as he confessed Jesus Christ the Son of God. Andrew, who journeyed through Scythia and founded the first Christian Church in Byzantium, was crucified at Patras, so tradition says, on the chi-shaped cross (X) which ever since has borne his name; while Thomas had his side pierced with a spear after a fruitful missionary career in Persia, Ethiopia and India. Indeed, practically all the Apostles crowned their life's work with a martyr's death, although on many points their story is obscure and confused, having been handed down to us not by authenticated histories but by popular traditions.

A single exception was John, the Beloved Disciple, the youngest of them all, who died peacefully in the closing year of the first century of the Christian era. After the dispersal of his fellow-disciples, John made Ephesus the center of his activities, and directed from there all the missionary work in Asia Minor, especially after the death of the other Apostles. During the reign of the Emperor Domitian he was banished for a while to the island of Patmos, where, after the manner of the ancient prophets, he wrote the Book of Revelation. But he was restored again to his flock, and lived on among them to such a green aid age that at the close of his life he would be carried to the place of worship, where, too weak to deliver a lengthy discourse, he confined his whole teaching to these simple words: "Little children, love one another." For to John the epitome of all Christian morality was love. It is related of this Apostle that he was greatly attracted by a handsome and gifted youth and adopted him as his son. But the youth, during the Apostle's absence, was led astray by evil companions and became a brigand chief. The old Apostle went up into the mountains and searched until he found this wandering sheep, when laying him on his shoulders he brought him back repentant to the Christian fold.

Under the Apostles' successors during the second and third centuries Christianity still continued to gain ground day by day. The philosopher and martyr, Justin, who died in A.D. 166, was already able to affirm that in his time there was scarcely a single race of men on earth, barbarous or civilized, nomad, or dwelling in tents, among whom prayers were not offered up to the one true God, revealed through Jesus Christ. And the facts proved that Justin's assertion was no mere rhetorical bombast. In Asia Minor, at Bithynia, the younger Pliny viewed with alarm the swift spread of the new religion. In Syria, the light of the Gospel shone out from Antioch as from a glowing hearth. In Athens the apostolic Bishops, Dionysius the Areopagite and Quadratus, continued Paul's preaching of the Unknown God. In Italy the Christian communities were multiplying, with Rome as their spiritual metropolis; while in the south of France Lyons and Vienne were prominent Christian centers. In Africa great men of the Church covered Carthage with glory, and disseminated the faith in the neighboring towns; while the Church of Alexandria, founded by Mark the Evangelist, was like another Pharos to Egypt. But such great progress was not made without encountering serious obstacles. The Roman Empire, which held the mastery of the world, was a pagan empire, and naturally looked upon the undermining of paganism as equivalent to the sapping of its own foundations. Hence there arose the persecutions of the first three centuries, which broke out at intervals with renewed violence, with the object of exterminating the Christian faith, until after three hundred years of fighting the Empire laid down its sword at the feet of Christ.

The first persecution took place, as it were by chance, in the reign of Nero, in A.D. 64. This ghoulish and demented monarch, who had murdered his tutor, his brother and his mother with as much enjoyment as he read the poems of Homer, took it into his head to set fire to Rome, in order to obtain a realistic impression of the burning of Troy by the Greeks. But his people discovered the origin of the conflagration, and to save himself from their rage he threw the responsibility on the newly-risen sect of the Christians, whom the pagans already hated as godless and unsocial people. Some of the Christians were crucified, some sawn in two; other were sewn up into skins and thrown to the dogs, or cast as defenseless prey to the beasts. And some, smeared with pitch and tar, were impaled on stakes and lighted like torches to illuminate the imperial gardens. During this persecution, as we have seen, Peter and Paul were martyred. In the year A.D. 95 Domitian in his turn persecuted the new faith, considering that belief in Jesus Christ was incompatible with belief in the divinity of the Roman Caesar. To this persecution were due the death of Domitian’s nephew, Flavius Clemens, the banishment of the Apostle John to Patmos, the martyrdom of Dionysius the Areopagite, and the execution, exile or imprisonment of many other Christians. This suspicious emperor, interpreting literally Christ's words on the Kingdom of God, even sent to Palestine for certain of our Lord's kinsmen, in order to condemn them as revolutionaries; but when he saw their poverty-stricken mien and their horny hands, he dismissed them again as madmen.

Under the Emperor Trajan (98-117) Pliny the younger, then Governor of Bithynia and Pontus, observed the daily increase of the Christian communities in his province; and uncertain how to check the progress of this "evil and mischievous superstition," as he called it, wrote to the Emperor for instructions. Trajan replied that no measures should be taken deliberately to hunt out Christians; if, however, they were once summoned before the magistrates, they should be forced to choose between sacrifice to the pagan gods and death. Thus Christianity, whose fate had hitherto depended on the caprice of successive emperors, became, from now onwards, by the explicit provisions of Roman law, a punishable offence. The most notable victim of this persecution was the Bishop of Antioch, Ignatius Theophorus, by reason both of his own distinguished position and of the eminence of his judge; for the Emperor Trajan himself, during a campaign against the Parthians, happened to pass through Antioch, and Ignatius appeared before him to intercede on behalf of his flock. — "Who art thou, evil spirit, who despisest my decrees?" asked Trajan. — "A God-bearer cannot be called an evil spirit," replied Ignatius. — "And what man is a God-bearer?" — "He who bears Christ in his bosom." — "Who is this Christ? He who was crucified under Pilate?" — "I mean Him who crucified sin, my adored Lord." — "And thinkest thou that those whom we worship are no gods?" — "O king, you call the demons gods, for there is one God alone, He who created heaven and earth." — "Very good," said Trajan; "I command that this man, who says he bears within him the crucified Christ, be sent in chains to Rome, and be torn to pieces by wild beasts for the entertainment of the Roman people." When he heard the Emperor's decision, Ignatius gave praise to God that he was to be glorified by the same end as the Apostle Paul had suffered; and, following his guards, he made the long journey to Rome, where before thousands of spectators he was thrown into the Coliseum and devoured by I wild beasts.

Trajan's successor was Hadrian (117-138), to whom two learned Christians, Quadratus, Bishop of Athens, and the Athenian philosopher, Aristides, addressed apologies for their brethren in the faith. Hadrian, who was a just emperor, was impressed by their arguments, and gave orders that henceforth Christians should not be molested merely to satisfy 'popular clamor, and only when they were convicted of common crimes should they be punished with death. But unfortunately even under Hadrian Christian blood was shed in Palestine, owing to a certain Jewish rebel, Bar-cochba, who stirred up his fellow-countrymen to revolt against the Roman rule. Bar-cochba was killed, and the rebellion was washed out with Jewish blood; while many innocent Christians perished, because Christianity was still popularly identified with Judaism. Hadrian obliterated the very name of Jerusalem, which he renamed "Aelia Capitolina," and raised a temple to Venus on Golgotha, and a statue of Jupiter on the Holy Sepulcher.

A new series of persecutions against the Christians was initiated by Marcus Aurelius (161-180). Partly because he resented their calm and courageous attitude in the face of death as an insult to his own Stoic virtue (for Marcus Aurelius was both Caesar and philosopher); partly because his people ascribed plagues and other similar disasters to the anger of the gods at their toleration of Christian godlessness, the Emperor rescinded the moderate laws of Hadrian. The persecution of Christians for their Christianity alone once more became the order of the day, and even torture was pressed into service to force them to recant. It was at this time that Polycarp, who with Ignatius had been a disciple of Saint John, was burned alive in the arena of Smyrna. — "Wilt thou curse Christ?" the proconsul threatened him. — "For eighty-six years have I served Him, and never has He done me wrong," answered the saint; "how then shall I now speak evil of my Lord and Savior?" The pagans sought to fasten him to the stake with nails, but Polycarp protested. — "Your precautions are needless, for God will grant me strength to stand unbound amid the flames." These and other similar events took place in Asia Minor in 166. In 177 persecution broke out again more violently than ever, especially in Southern Gaul. At Lyons, among other victims, the nonagenarian Bishop of the town, Pothinus, succumbed to cruel tortures; while the slave girl Blandina was gored to death in the bull-ring. At Autun, Symphorian was beheaded for failing to kneel and adore the image of Cybele as its frenzied procession passed by. Ridiculing the Christian dogma of the resurrection of the dead, the pagans burnt the bodies of the martyrs and scattered their ashes on the waters of the Rhone, saying as they did so: — "Now we shall see if they will arise from the dead, and if their God has power enough to save them from our hands!"

It is said that Septimius Severus (192-211) was at first favorably disposed towards the Christians, because he had been cured of a chronic disease through the prayers of a certain Christian slave named Proculus; but in 202 he suddenly changed his mind, and issued a decree forbidding the confession of Christianity on pain of death. This persecution did not, however, become general, and its victims were few and far between. In Egypt Saint Leonidas was beheaded, after receiving, while in prison, a remarkable letter from his fifteen-year old son, later the famous Origen, exhorting him not to weaken in the face of martyrdom. A young girl, Potamiaena, with her mother Marcella, was thrown into burning pitch; and so great was her fortitude that her executioner himself, Basilides, was moved to confess Christ and followed her to martyrdom. Perpetua, a noble matron of Carthage, was exposed to the goring of a mad bull with her baby in her arms, while her aged father vainly besought her to have pity on her own youth and on her child. Christianity was again persecuted by Maximin (235-238) who succeeded to the throne by murdering Alexander Severus. The latter had been well-disposed towards the Christians, and had set up a bust of Christ in his chapel by the side of his statues of Apollonius and Orpheus; and it was because the eclectic Alexander Severus had cultivated relationships with the Christian bishops that Maximin vented his hatred more particularly on them.

So far, all persecutions had been more or less local, depending mainly on the disposition of the provincial governors, of whom the more fanatical enforced the imperial decrees strictly, while the more tolerant found means to evade them. But in the reign of Decius (249-251) persecution became not only general, but severely systematic. Henceforth a time-limit was set for all Christians in every place, within which they were to present themselves before the authorities, sacrifice to the pagan gods, and thus obtain a certificate of recantation. Many Christians, yielding to torture, were forced to sacrifice against their conscience; others managed to buy their certificates, to the great sorrow of the Church, who considered such expedients as equivalent to apostasy. But many others, among whom were Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem, Babylas of Antioch, and Fabian of Rome, preferred martyrdom to hypocrisy; and, indeed, the army of those who confessed their faith far outnumbered that of the poor-spirited and apostates. The "odious superstition," to which Decius, a true if misguided patriot, ascribed the decadence of the Roman Empire, proved itself to be stronger than human frailty.

From 257 onwards, Valerian (253-260) in his turn renewed the anti-Christian policy of Decius. He attempted, by exiling their bishops, to render the Christian communities leaderless, and, therefore, more easily dissolvable. But the bishops, from their distant exile, not only communicated by letter with their flocks and directed them as if they had been present, but also spread the Gospel in the places where they were exiled. The martyrdom of Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, and Sixtus of Rome, took place in Valerian's reign; in Rome, too, the deacon Laurence was roasted, according to tradition, on a red-hot gridiron, because when the governor demanded the surrender of the Church's treasure, he pointed to the widows and orphans, saying, "Behold the treasure of the Church!"

The last and heaviest blow against Christianity was struck by Diocletian (284-305). Yielding on the one hand to the insistence of his fanatical son-in-law Galerius and of certain Neo-Platonic philosophers, who imagined that they might yet prop up the tottering gods of paganism, the Emperor also hoped by restoring uniformity of religion to weld together the fragments of his disintegrating empire. In A.D. 303 he therefore published at Nicaea his first edict against Christianity, and followed it immediately with three others. The Christian churches which had been built during the previous years of peace, were razed to the ground; the holy Scriptures were burnt, and bishops and priests were put to death. Christians who held public positions were stripped of their office. The prisons groaned with prisoners and the blood of martyrs flowed like a river. But this great trial passed at last without succeeding in obstructing the progress of the Gospel, for by this time Christianity held sway over at least one tenth of the subjects of the Roman Empire, and numbered among its members such eminent people as Diocletian's wife, Prisca, and his daughter, Valeria. In 305, Diocletian became insane and abdicated. In 311, Galerius was attacked by a fatal illness, and, ascribing it to his unjust treatment of the Christians, he issued an edict of toleration, signed jointly with his colleagues Constantine and Licinius, even inviting the Christians to pray for him. Christianity was triumphant.

The persecution of the Christians was not carried on uninterruptedly from beginning to end. There were peaceful intervals which enabled the victims to reorganize themselves and augment their numbers; for certain emperors, engrossed, like Heliogabalus (218-222), by a life of luxury, professing, like Alexander Severus (222-235), an eclectic philosophy, or in sympathy with Christianity, like Philip the Arabian (244-249), left the Christians undisturbed. But persecution was finally brought to an end by Constantine the Great, who was destined by Providence to enthrone Christianity as the official state religion, and whose great services to Christianity our Church still commemorates by honoring him as an "Isapostol," that is, equal to an Apostle.

Constantine was the son of Constantius Chlorus, Caesar over Gaul, Britain and Spain, whom he succeeded in A.D. 306. Fortunate in having an eclectic father, and as mother the devout Christian Helena, he followed closely the unavailing struggle of expiring paganism against Christianity, and was not slow to realize that the religion of the future would be this new faith, which seemed to him to be of a supernatural character. He was still further strengthened in this belief by an episode which took place in A.D. 312, while he was marching towards Rome on a campaign against his colleague Maxentius, Augustus of the West. About mid-day, he saw the sign of the Cross mysteriously traced on the sky, with the words "By this conquer" and as he slept that night, Christ appeared and exhorted him to adopt this symbol as his imperial banner. He did as he was commanded, and his subsequent victory over the pagan Maxentius was the victory of Christian truth over pagan error.

Thus Constantine became sole ruler in the West, and in conjunction with his colleague in the East, Licinius, issued an edict of toleration at Milan, which was designed to favor the propagation of the Gospel in an unprecedented way. In 323 he broke with Licinius also, and after defeating him and being proclaimed sole ruler, he soon proceeded to manifest his interest in Christianity by more vigorous measures. He restored to the Christian communities property that had been confiscated from them by the civil authorities, and conferred on them the right to receive gifts and bequests. He introduced into the army, for the first time, a monotheistic form of prayer; supplied churches with copies of sacred Scriptures, appointed Sunday as a holiday, and forbade crucifixion as a method of execution for criminals. He helped his pious mother to find the True Cross on Golgotha and to build the Holy Sepulcher; and when, in 330, he built Constantinople, on the site of old Byzantium by the Bosphorus, and adorned it with churches and other admirable monuments, he called it "New Rome," to mark it as the starting-point of his new life, cut off for ever from the abominations of Ancient Rome. But Constantine was clever enough to avoid making sudden changes which might arouse resentment and hamper his work of reform; thus, he instigated no persecutions against the pagans, and retained the title of "Pontifex Maximus" as an inseparable adjunct to his imperial status. His private life, like that of all monarchs who live in a suspicious environment, was not free from ugly blots; before he was baptized, Constantine was responsible for the death of his wife Fausta and his son Crispus. But the sincere repentance with which he received Baptism at the end of his life purified his soul from guilt, and much will be forgiven him for the great love he bore to God's Church. David, too, was a sinner; yet he holds his rightful place in the gallery of the saints by virtue of his repentance, which washed out his two-fold sin, and handed down to posterity his great work for the Lord pure and untarnished.

Constantine the Great died in 337, leaving three sons, Constantine II, Constantius and Constans, who, unfortunately, did not follow the prudent policy of their father. Instead of leaving paganism, which was decaying from day to day, to expire of its own accord, as Constantine had done, they made use of violence. They closed pagan temples forcibly, and exacted from their courtiers a profession of Christianity that only served to make hypocrites of them. This policy defeated its own ends, for it aroused the fanaticism of the persecuted pagans, and drove them to band themselves together in secret machinations until a suitable opportunity presented itself for the public outbreak of fierce opposition. This opportunity occurred on the accession of Julian to the imperial throne. Though a nephew of Constantine the Great, this dreaming poet was a lover of the pagan gods, to whom he was drawn as much by his natural disposition for poetry as by reason of the many acts of violence and murder committed against his family by the sons of Constantine the Great.

Julian imagined that he had been designated by fate to revive the religion of paganism, and this belief was covertly fostered by the philosophers of his day. At first he pretended to be a Christian, and even read the Scriptures in church. But in 361 Constantius, who in consequence of his brothers' death had been sole ruler since 353, died suddenly; and Julian, ascending the throne to the acclamation of his soldiers, who adored him for his military virtues, showed himself in his true colors as a violent hater of Christianity. He forbade the attendance of Christians in the Greek schools, ironically relegating them to the Galileans, Matthew and Luke. He summoned turbulent bishops back from exile to foment quarrels and disturbances in the Christian communities. He imposed taxes on the clergy, and abolished the Church's right to receive bequests. He sent builders to Jerusalem to reconstruct the Jewish temple, which had been destroyed in the reign of Titus (A.D. 70), in order to belie the Lord's prophecy concerning its destruction. He tried to revive oracles that had for years been silent, presided over public pagan ceremonies, often himself sacrificing elaborate hecatombs. He introduced into paganism choir-singing, the preaching of sermons, and collections for the poor, all features borrowed from Christianity. But all his efforts were in vain, and after a reign of only twenty months the Apostate and Transgressor — for so history has stigmatized him, — died from a wound in the liver which he received in battle against the Persians. It is said that as he lay dying he filled his hand with blood from his wound, and, shaking the drops of blood into the air as though Christ stood before him, he cried with his dying breath: "Thou has conquered, Galilean!"

The Emperors who succeeded Julian continued the policy of Constantine the Great, but with ever-increasing severity against paganism. It was during the reign of Valentinian I (d. 375) that idolatry was first characterized as "paganismus," that is, the religion of the villages, for by then it had been practically eradicated from the great centers. Gratian (d. 383) considered that the time had come to divest himself of the title of Great High Priest, which Constantine the Great had retained, as has been said, in order not to offend the susceptibilities of the majority of his subjects; it was Gratian, too, who ordered the removal of the altar to Victory that had stood from olden times in the Roman Senate. In the reign of Theodosius I the Great (d. 395) the colossal statue of Serapis in Alexandria was pulled down and burnt, to the amazement of its worshippers, who expected the destruction of the statue to herald the end of the world; and at the same time laws were enacted severely forbidding idolatry, which afforded an excuse to misguided Christians, both laymen and monks, to set upon idols and idolaters with sticks and hatchets. Under Theodosius II (d. 450) certain bigoted Christians in Alexandria, biding their time, attacked the Neoplatonic philosopher Hypatia, who was renowned for her wisdom, beauty and virtue, and murdered her, thereby disfiguring with an indelible blot the pages of Christian history, for Hypatia was revered even by Christian bishops. To the list of violent measures against paganism must also be added the suppression of the Philosophical School in Athens, under Justinian in 529. This was the last remaining refuge of paganism, and was frequented even by the great fathers of the Church, who recognized its scholastic value.

While Christianity was thus spreading within the Roman Empire, it sought at the .same time new fields of conquest outside it; — in Asia among the Armenians, Iberians, Persians, Arabs and Indians; in Africa among the Abyssinians and in reconstructed Europe among tribes that had just appeared for the first time. The Armenians received Christianity mainly from Gregory, who flourished in the fourth century and was rightly called the "Illuminator." Gregory, fleeing from the wrath of King Tiridates, who had slaughtered all his home, took refuge to Caesarea in Cappadocia, where he was brought up in the Christian faith. Returning to his native land, he preached Jesus with such fervor that even the savage Tiridates himself was baptized with his whole court, and drew his subjects after him to Christianity. The work of the Illuminator was continued by Narses, Sahak and especially Mesrop, who invented the Armenian Alphabet in 400 and translated the Holy Scriptures, thus giving the first impetus to the creation of an admirable Armenian literature. The Iberians or Georgians, neighbors of the Armenians, were evangelized in the fourth century by a devout Armenian captive, Nonna by name, whom the Iberians still honor as an apostle. It is said that a certain child had fallen sick, and according to the local custom, the parents carried it from house to house, in the hope of finding some skilled healer who might cure it. When they reached the house of Nonna, she prayed to Christ and healed the child. This story spread to the palace, where the Queen also lay ill; and Nonna, summoned thither, cured the Queen also, thus winning the people through their rulers.

There appear to have been a considerable number of Christians in Persia during the fourth century with the Bishop of Seleucia and Ctesiphon as their head; for how otherwise could we account for the vast multitudes who suffered martyrdom for the Faith during the persecutions instigated by the two kings Shahpoor and Bahram? Unfortunately, however, Christianity did not survive in Persia. The national religion of the Persians was Zoroastrianism, which admits two gods and tries to explain through them every phenomenon both of good and evil; and they naturally hated any religion which provided them with a different explanation. They were, moreover, constantly engaged in wars against the Byzantines, which, while it gave them yet another reason for persecuting the religion of their mortal enemies, also prompted them to receive with open arms various Christian heretics, as adversaries of the official religion of the Byzantine Empire. In Arabia, too, Christianity made a brief appearance; under the sons of Constantine the Great, it was preached there by monks and hermits, but was finally extinguished in the seventh century by the advent of Mohammedanism, with which we shall deal more fully later. About the year 535, Cosmas Indicopleustes encountered Christians in India who called themselves "Christians of Thomas," claiming to have first received the Gospel from that Apostle. In Abyssinia, the Gospel was preached by the noble Frumentius, who fell into the hands of the Abyssinians in 327. Later, he went to Alexandria, where he was ordained bishop by Athanasius the Great, and returned to continue his missionary work in Abyssinia.

In the fourth century the West was overrun by the barbarous peoples from the north, known by the common term of Germans, whose incursions devastated Europe. The Ostrogoths were the first among them to embrace Christianity, thanks mainly to the efforts of Ulfilas the Cappadocian (d. 388) who was their bishop for forty years, during which time he invented the Gothic alphabet and translated the Scriptures. From the Ostrogoths, Christianity spread to the Wisigoths, who sacked Rome in 410; the Vandals, who in 439 established a great empire in North Africa; the Lombards, who poured into Italy during the sixth century; and to many other tribes. But all these tribes received Christianity in the form of Arianism. Only the Franks, who became Christians in 496 under Clovis and his Christian wife Clotilda, received the Orthodox faith; and little by little, through Frankish influence, the other tribes abjured their Arian error. The Irish, whose religion was druidic nature-worship, were won for Christ by Saint Patrick (d. 493), who at his death left a multitude of churches and disciples to continue his work. Two of his disciples, Columba and Columbanus, preached the Gospel to the Scots and the Swiss respectively. A great contribution to the spread of Christianity in the West was made by Pope Gregory the Great, who made monasticism a missionary organ, and in 597 sent the monk Augustine with his forty companions to England, to evangelize the Anglo-Saxons. Gregory the Great is the most vivid incarnation of the Papacy, — of that Papacy which rose to the zenith of its glory by exploiting every political anomaly, and foundered in the corruption of the Middle Ages, only to rise again later as a more compact, despotic and militant system than before.

As the life of Christ's Church was threatened from without by fire and sword, so it was endangered from within by heresy. The word "heresy" means "choice"; thus, the heretics, not satisfied with the plain unvarnished truth of the Gospels and wishing to combine Christian ideology with others foreign to it, chose from here and there whatever pleased them and so composed a medley of conflicting ideas which they substituted for the pure faith. The Church, as the depository of the true apostolic Christian faith, took note of these errors; and, summoning her canonical representatives to local or general Councils, she scrupulously examined the subjects in question on the basis of the Holy Scriptures and the Apostolic Tradition, and declared which was the true faith and which the distorted heresy. Owing to the fact that many heretics forged so-called "sacred" documents in support of their errors and included them among the Holy Scriptures, while others referred to traditions of their own invention, the Church was very soon obliged to ascertain and define both the Canon of the Holy Scriptures and the true Apostolic Tradition, which was not transient or sectarian, but had been preserved "always, everywhere, by every" believer in Christ. The Church reaped other benefits, too, from her conflicts with heresy, being forced on the one hand to improve her system of government in order more effectually to counter the heretics; and on the other hand to perfect her preaching of sermons and her psalmody, in order to popularize orthodox doctrines, as they had done to disseminate their false teaching.

The first heresies against which the Church had to struggle were Judaic, as was only natural, since Christianity first sprang up on Jewish soil, and some of the Jewish proselytes found it difficult to renounce their old ways of thought. There were three main sects of Judaic heretics. Firstly, the Ebionites, who insisted on the Jewish rite of circumcision as well as on Christian Baptism, and rejected all the Holy Scriptures except the Pentateuch in the Old Testament and the Gospel of St. Matthew in the New, mutilating even these to suit their tastes. They set Christ almost on the level with Moses; and were called Ebionites — that is, poor, — because they had but a poor and low conception of Jesus Christ. Secondly, the Nazarenes, whose creed was a little higher than that of Ebionites; for they accepted the Bible in its entirety, and taught that Christ was born supernaturally, and was therefore greater than the prophets, but insisted on circumcision, to which they ascribed eternal validity. They were known as Nazarenes because they considered themselves the true and original followers of the Nazarene; for at first all Christians were called Nazarenes. And thirdly, the Elkesaites, so called after their leader Elkesai, who on the one hand mingled Judaism with Christianity, honoring the commands of the Law as though they were eternal dogmas and rejecting from the Bible all the books that did not tally with their doctrine; and on the other hand dabbled in the occult arts, and boasted their own Holy Scriptures, which, they claimed, had been communicated to them exclusively by God.

Another sect of Judaic heretics was that of the Cerinthians, whose leader was Cerinthus, a contemporary of the Apostles. It is said that St. John the Evangelist once met Cerinthus at a public bath, whither he himself had gone to wash and thereupon rushed out again, crying: "Let us fly from this place, lest the bath crumble in; for Cerinthus is here, the enemy of truth " Like all the Jewish heretics, Cerinthus denounced St. Paul as an enemy to circumcision, and rejected his Epistles. His teaching on the Savior was curious; for he asserted that originally Jesus was a mere man, the son of Joseph and Mary, but that when he was baptized in the Jordan, Christ descended upon him in the form of a dove and gave the man Jesus power to perform the miracles of His public ministry. At the Crucifixion, Christ and Jesus were separated; Christ ascending again to Heaven, while Jesus, abandoned to his human frailty, suffered death on the Cross. Cerinthus is also held by some to be the author of the heresy of Chiliasm or Millenarianism, a false doctrine based on the Psalmist's saying that a thousand years in the sight of the Lord are but as a single day. From this it deduces that since the world was created in six days, followed by the Sabbath, it will therefore continue to exist for six thousand years, after which will come a millennium of feasting and sensual delights, which will be the Messianic age. A kind of spiritual millennium was preached by certain of the Christian Fathers during the persecutions, inspired by the belief that Christ would soon return again, bringing them salvation. But the gross delusion of imaginations fevered by materialistic Jewish dreams.

While the Judaic heresies sought to graft Christianity on to Judaism, the Gnostics tried, with a strange lack of judgment and unbridled imagination, to adulterate the divine Revelation with the inventions of human philosophy. The doctrines of these heretics, too, were many and various, some of them (those of the Alexandrians) being influenced by Platonic philosophy, while others (those of the Syrians) were based on Persian dualism; but certain characteristics were common to all Gnostics. They believed themselves to be the privileged recipients of a special revelation from pod, which they called "gnosis," or knowledge, and by virtue of which they were able to solve the problems of life. Since the hardest problem of all is the existence of evil, they imagined that they had solved it by attributing it to matter, in which the fallen souls from the world of light are held captive. But because God, as He is portrayed in the Gospels, is a God of goodness, and it was not possible for evil matter to proceed from a good God, they were driven to the supposition that there were two Gods, — the God of the New Testament, Who ruled over the kingdom of light, and the God of the Old Testament, Who created matter and was the "Demiurgus," or Creator of the universe. According to the Gnostics, therefore, matter and the flesh are to be abhorred as creations of the God of Evil; and many of them submitted their body to unheard-of torments and privations, while others, on the contrary, degraded it with every form of vice in order to show their contempt for the flesh. Christ, in the opinion of most Gnostics, was simply a divine emanation, — a spirit sent from the world of light to liberate the souls that were groaning in the bonds of matter. But if Christ were a spirit, and belonged entirely to the kingdom of light (so the Gnostics reasoned), His connection with matter would be utterly impossible and incongruous. Christ, then, did not put on fleshly form; God and man did not unite in the person of the Savior, and the alleged Incarnation was only an "appearance," an illusion, a figment of the imagination of the beholders.

Another heresy based on Persian dualism was Manichaeism, which was started in the third century by the Persian Mani. He also believed in the existence of two principles, uncreated and eternal, perpetually warring against each other; God, Lord of the kingdom of light, and Satan, Lord of the kingdom of darkness. Satan, tempted by the kingdom of light, had once tried to enter into it, whereupon God brought forth man from the Mother of Life and sent him to fight against the powers of darkness. But the powers of darkness, in their struggle with man, attacked his soul, and would have utterly destroyed him, had not God hastened to the rescue by clothing Christ, Who dwelt in the sun, with an imaginary body and sending Him down to earth, where by His teaching He achieved the redemption of man. But, unfortunately, according to the Manichaeans, the Galileans (that is, the Apostles) had misinterpreted the teaching of Christ, Who therefore sent Mani, greater than the Apostles (for he was the Comforter foretold by Christ), to disentangle truth from error. Hence the Manichaeans rejected all the canonical books of the New Testament, substituting gospels and epistles of their own invention. They considered Mani and his successors as the representatives of Christ, and appointed about them 12 teachers and 72 bishops, corresponding to the 12 Apostles and 72 Disciples of the Lord. Further, they divided themselves into two classes, — the Hearers or outer circle, and the Initiate or inner circle. On the latter was imposed not only strict celibacy, but also abstention from all animal food, and scrupulous respect for the life of insects and flowers.

Among the heretics who appeared during the first few centuries of Christianity must be numbered the Antitrinitarians of the second and third centuries, who tried to elucidate the supernatural doctrine of the Holy Trinity by human reasoning. The problem which they set themselves was to reconcile the doctrine of the Trinity with Christian Monotheism. Some, like Theodotus the Tanner and Paul of Samosata, ascribed divinity to the Father alone, and relegated the Son to the status of a prophet, great indeed and unique, but a mere mortal man who had received inspiration and illumination from on high. Others, like Noetus of Smyrna and Sabellius the Libyan, acknowledged a single divine Person Who manifested himself in different forms according to the different needs of the world, adopting at the Creation the figure of the Father, at the Redemption that of the Son, and during His guidance of the Church, that of the Holy Ghost. These individual opinions, which had nothing in common with the Christian faith, were condemned sporadically by the early Fathers, until more violent discussions on the person of the Savior impelled the Church to define and interpret her teaching clearly at successive Ecumenical Synods.

At the beginning of the fourth century, a certain presbyter of Alexandria, Arius by name, a man of strict morality, but more attached to profane learning than to Gospel truth, preached that Christ was created by God the Father as a tool by means of which He might create the Universe; that He was the first of all created things but had not existed eternally; that there had been a time when He was not, and He was, therefore, inferior to God the Father. These platonic theories came to the notice of his bishop, Alexander, who summoned a local Synod in Alexandria in 321, and condemned them as contrary to the Gospel. But Arius, who believed that only the adoption of his theories could preserve monotheism in Christianity, not only continued to uphold his personal opinions, but — by means of hymns and other methods of popularization — disseminated them among an ever-widening circle. Other churchmen joined him, and as the unity of the Church was in peril, in order to calm men's minds and restore peace among them, Constantine the Great summoned to Nicaea in 325 a great Synod, which was attended by representatives from every part of the world, and was therefore known as an Ecumenical, or Universal, Synod.

There were present at this Synod many distinguished men, some famous for their learning and virtue, some for their ascetic life, and others for the marks of martyrdom which Diocletian's persecution had inflicted on them. But in theological skill they were all overshadowed by Athanasius the Great, who was still only a deacon to the Bishop of Alexandria. On the basis of Holy Scripture and Tradition, he demonstrated that the Son of God, far from being created by the Father, was born of Him, of His own substance, before all the ages, and that consequently the Son does not differ in His nature from the Father, but forms with Him a single Godhead. Nearly all those present approved him, and the following formula was inserted in the Creed: "And [I believe] in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father only-born, that is of the essence of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, Very God from Very God, begotten, not made, of one and the same essence of the Father; through Whom all things were made." This Creed was signed by all the Fathers present, over 300 in number, and was ordained as the exact expression of the Church's doctrine on her divine Founder. Arius and two of his supporters who refused to sign the Creed were sent into exile.

Unfortunately, this official condemnation did not prevent Arianism from continuing to disturb the Church's peace. After a very short time, Arius succeeded, with the help of powerful friends at court, in obtaining his recall from exile, and even contrived to banish Athanasius, the leader of the Orthodox party, who had been made Bishop of Alexandria at the death of Alexander. Arius, the cause of the whole disturbance, died in 336. A new party was then formed, whose members called themselves "Semi-Arians" and sought to reconcile Arians and Orthodox by substituting for the word "homoousios" (i.e. of the same essence) in the Creed the word "homoiousios" (i.e. of similar essence). But another party rose in opposition to these mediators, maintaining that Christ, being born of the Father, is neither "homoousios" nor "homoiousios," but "anomoios," or "unlike." Thus the Church was more and more torn by dissension owing partly to the stubbornness of certain bishops, who disregarded their signature of the Nicene Creed, and especially to the forcible interference of the imperial court in theological disputes, for the tyrannical emperors Constantius (353-361) and Valens (364-378), who supported the Arians, persecuted the Orthodox party mercilessly. In the end, however, the Creed laid down at the Nicene Synod emerged triumphant as the only doctrine embodying the spirit of the Gospel, and sealed by the approval of the most eminent Fathers of the age, who included the three famous Cappadocians, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus. When, therefore, the Orthodox emperor, Theodosius the Great, ascended the throne, he immediately convened a second Ecumenical Synod which met in Constantinople in 381, and, confirming the decisions of the First Ecumenical Synod, pronounced them to be the Orthodox view of the Universal Church. From then onwards, Arianism disappeared, though it found a temporary refuge with the Goths, as has already been seen, and with other barbarian tribes. The Second Ecumenical Synod also condemned Macedonius, who taught that the Holy Ghost had been created by the Son, just as, according to the Arians, the Son had been created by the Father. It was, therefore, formally stated in the Creed that the Holy Ghost "proceeds from the Father, and is worshipped and glorified with the Father and the Son," partaking of the same divine essence and nature.

The Second Ecumenical Synod affirmed not only the perfect divinity of Christ, but also His perfect humanity, by condemning the heresy of Apollinarianism, which began to spread in 362. This heresy consisted in the denial of a "rational" soul to the incarnate Logos, asserting that the God-Man took on only the "irrational" soul and material body, having His divinity in place of the rational soul. The Fathers protested against this, maintaining that if the incarnate Logos did not assume full humanity with its rational soul, He left our noblest part unhealed; "for that which He did not assume, He did not heal." These were the arguments which the Fathers at the Second Synod opposed to Apollinarianism; but they had as yet no definite and crystallized idea of the manner in which the full divinity and the full humanity of Christ were united in His person. Some held that the relation was extremely close; others, extremely loose. Nestorius, the Archbishop of Constantinople, was of the latter opinion, and drew so sharp a distinction between the two natures in Christ, that he came eventually to recognize two persons in Him, maintaining that Christ, the son of Mary, was one, and Christ, the Son of God, was another; so that Mary should be rightly called "Christotokos" (i.e. Mother of Christ) and not "Theotokos" (i.e. Mother of God). To combat this heresy, Theodosius II summoned to Ephesus in 431 the Third Ecumenical Synod, which affirmed that the Church confesses one Christ, one Son, one Lord, Who is at once both God and Man, Who was born of the Father before all the ages, and became incarnate through the Virgin Mary at the appointed time. In his pride, Nestorius refused to yield to the unanimous decision of the Church, and preferred to retire into exile, where he died in 440. A similar fate befell his supporters; persecuted by the Orthodox, they took refuge with the Persians, who received them with open arms, as a hostile gesture towards the Byzantine Empire.

Nestorius had considered the relation between the two natures of Christ to be so loose that he distinguished in them two separate persons, united only by a moral tie such as is created, for instance, between man and wife by marriage. At the other extreme, Eutychius and Dioscorus held the union to be so close that they taught that, after the Incarnation of the Son and Logos, not two but one single nature should be spoken of; that is, the divine, which had either absorbed the human into itself, or had mingled and fused with it. It was in order to condemn this other extreme of opinion, known as Monophysitism, that the Fourth Ecumenical Synod met at Chalcedon in 451, in the reign of the Empress Pulcheria. This Synod issued a Decree which both reaffirmed the pronouncements of the Third Synod, that the Lord is one and the same, perfect in Godhead as in manhood, and that two natures exist in the God-Man, and also laid it down that these two natures are united in the single Person of the Logos, not only "without distinction and without separation," but "without confusion and without change" as well, the one nature suffering neither annihilation nor alteration by the other.

The decisions of the Synod of Chalcedon were not, however, universally accepted. The Armenians, considering that the Decree of Chalcedon verged on Nestorianism, rejected it at a local Synod which met at Etchmiadzin in 491. The Copts of Egypt, their neighbors the Abyssinians, and the Syrian Jacobites likewise preferred to break away from the Catholic Church and to found schismatic Monophysite communities rather than admit two separate natures in Christ, — a doctrine which they thought amounted to cutting in two the Person of the God-Man and returning to the teaching of Nestorius. In order to emphasize the difference between the recognition of two persons in Christ, which was the heretical opinion held by Nestorius, and the recognition of two natures in one Person, which was the Orthodox teaching of the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, the Emperor, Justinian the Great, following the now established custom, convened the Fifth Ecumenical Synod at Constantinople in 553. This Synod condemned certain Theological works of Nestorian flavor, hoping thereby to conciliate the Monophysites and to persuade them to return to the Catholic Church.

Another method was followed by the Emperor Heraclius (611-641), who was moved chiefly by political considerations and was striving by every means to maintain the threatened unity of his empire. He tried to reconcile Monophysites and Orthodox on the basis of the formula of "two natures in Christ, but one activity," or, as a later edict phrased it, "two natures in Christ, but one will." This solution of the controversy, known under the name of Monotheletism, was not, however, acceptable to the Orthodox theologians, who pronounced it contrary to the Gospel and to sound reasoning. If Christ had two natures, it was inevitable that He should also have had two activities, — as God working miracles, rising from the dead, and ascending into Heaven; as man, performing the ordinary acts of daily life. Similarly, if He had two natures, each one must have £ad its individual will. In 680, therefore, under Constantine Pogonatus, the Sixth Ecumenical Synod was convened at Constantinople. Its members condemned Monotheletism as a heresy, and laid it down that as in Jesus Christ there are two natures, unconfused, unchanged, inseparable and indivisible, so also there are in Him two natural activities and two wills, which do not strive against each other, since the human will subordinates itself to the all-powerful divine will. To this very day one small community still adheres to Monotheletism; it is that of the Maronites of Lebanon.

Christological controversies were not the only matter dealt with by the aforementioned Ecumenical Synods. They touched on other subjects, too, concerning either the faith or the conduct and discipline of the Church. Noteworthy among the former was Pelagianism, a heresy which mainly concerned the West, but which was condemned by the Third Ecumenical Synod at Ephesus as inconsistent with existing facts. Pelagius, a monk from Britain who found his way to Africa, denied the innate sinful-ness of mankind and held that human nature had enough capacity for good to practice virtue by its own unaided powers, thus assigning to Divine Grace a role of secondary importance in the work of salvation, and to our Lord's death on the Cross a merely instructive value as a model of self-sacrifice for the imitation of humanity. The false psychology of this doctrine was exposed by Augustine, Bishop of Hippo in Africa, the most eminent teacher of the Western Church, who took up arms against Pelagius, but himself went astray at the other extreme. While Pelagius taught that the human soul is wholly free from sinfulness, Augustine maintained that it was wholly corrupt, that man contributed nothing towards his own righteousness, and that his salvation was the work of God alone, Who arbitrarily predestines one to salvation, another to perdition. The Church rejected this extreme view, as she had done the other. Man is spiritually neither wholly sound nor wholly dead, — he is sick; and while his salvation is mainly the product of God's grace and of the redemptive death of the Savior, his own will and effort also operate in a secondary way.

The title of "Fathers" is given to those distinguished men of the first eight centuries of the Christian era who combined profound learning with a saintly life and perfect purity of faith, and who strengthened others in the Christian life by their written and spoken word. Those who had every kind of knowledge, but whose faith was in some way imperfect, are called "teachers," and are not entitled to equal honor with the Fathers, although they, too, contributed all that was humanly possible. The earliest Fathers were the Apostolic Fathers, so named because they were the disciples and fellow-workers or contemporaries of the Apostles. These are Clement, Bishop of Rome (d. 100), who worked with the Apostle Paul; Barnabas the Cypriot, who also preached the Gospel with Paul, and who, tradition says, was stoned to death by the Jews at Salamis in Cyprus; Ignatius of Antioch, whose martyrdom under Trajan in 115 has already been mentioned; Polycarp of Smyrna, whose martyrdom under Marcus Aurelius in 166 has also been mentioned; and two or three others. Written memorials of all these men have survived, chiefly in the form of occasional epistles to various Christian communities. They form a slender but precious volume; for the works of the Apostolic Fathers were written immediately after the holy books of the New Testament, and are inspired by a supreme love of and devotion to the Savior.

The writers who succeeded the Apostolic Fathers represent, as it were, the adolescence of Church Literature. As their common characteristic is a bold defense of the faith, they have been called the Apologists. We have already met two such apologists: Quadratus, Bishop of Athens, and the Athenian philosopher, Aristides, both of whom presented apologies to the Emperor Hadrian on behalf of their unjustly persecuted fellow-Christians. To them must be added the philosopher, Justin, who addressed two apologies to Marcus Aurelius, under whom he was martyred in 166; the Athenian, Athenagoras, who flourished between the years 170-180, and addressed an "Intercession on behalf of the Christians" to the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus; and Theophilus of Antioch (d. 182), who submitted an exposition of the Christian faith to his pagan friend Autolycus. All three present a sincere and detailed account of the beliefs of the Christians and of their manner of life, thus giving the lie to the false and unfounded accusations of their enemies that they met by night to indulge in orgies and to slaughter and eat new-born babes. Justin especially was an excellent apologist, and defended Christianity not only against the pagans, but also, in another work entitled "A dialogue with Trypho," against the Jews. His life was a tireless search for truth; one after another, he went through every system of philosophy, and sat under every learned man of his age, without finding satisfaction for his spiritual craving, until finally he attained peace in Christianity. To the end of his days he continued to wear the philosopher's gown, convinced that Christianity was the only infallible philosophy of life.

Like a tree, whose branches multiply and extend as it grows, Christian learning, which had had such small beginnings, now began to broaden out into various Schools, or methods of study and interpretation. These were the Schools of Asia Minor, of Africa, of Alexandria, and of Antioch. The chief characteristic of the School of Asia Minor was devotion to a primitive and uncorrupted orthodoxy of faith; that of the African School, the practical and austere nature of their moral code; that of the Alexandrian, a speculative, philosophical and allegorical spirit; and that of the Antiochian, the sober and literal interpretation of Holy Writ. An example of the School of Asia Minor is Irenaeus (d. 202), who, born in Asia Minor, where he studied under Saint Polycarp, later went to France and became Bishop of Lyons, where he was martyred. His most important work is Against Heresies, in which, as a faithful guardian of the truth, he defends the orthodox doctrines against every corruption, and denounces those who diverge from them. As representatives of the African School, Tertullian (d. 220), a presbyter of Carthage, and Cyprian (d. 258), Bishop of Carthage, may be mentioned. The former, who invented the language of ecclesiastical Latin and always spoke with contempt of secular learning, was the sternest advocate of austere morality and was driven to Montanism by his excessive ascetism. The latter, a perfect type of the Christian pastor, was uncompromising in his hostility towards those who had betrayed the faith in time of persecution, and was beheaded for the sake of his principles under Valerian. Both left us essays, dogmatic, ethical, interpretative or occasional, in which their austere manner of life is mirrored.

The Alexandrian School was founded by Pantaenus and continued by Clement the Alexandrian and Origen. According to this School, Christianity is the highest form of knowledge, and the perfect Christian is the "gnostic"; that is, he who not only believes, but has knowledge and understanding of his faith. This ideal Clement set before himself in his trilogy Address to the Greeks, The Tutor, and the Miscellanies, in which he gradually leads his pupil from paganism to the height of Christian perfection. The life of Clement was similar to that of Justin; he, too, beginning as a pagan philosopher, later embraced the Gospel as the only satisfactory philosophy. His works are a treasury of Greek wisdom; but, great as he was, he was surpassed in genius, industry and fertility by his successor Origen, who was surnamed the Adamantine.

Origen was the son of Leonidas the martyr, whom, as we have seen, he urged not to fear death for Christ's sake, when he was yet a child. It has been said that the wrote more books than a man could read in a life-time. As an apologist, he wrote his treatise Against Celsus, in which he refutes the idle accusations of that formidable enemy of Christianity. As a writer on dogma, he has left us his work On Principles, the first example of Christian Dogmatics. As a commentator, he composed long commentaries on almost every part of the Bible. As a critic, he labored at the Hexapla, wherein he set out in six parallel columns the original and the translations which existed in his day, in order to determine the original text. Unfortunately, this man, whose great zeal for Christ drove him even into Arabia to preach the Gospel, and who converted Julia Mammaea, the mother of the Emperor Alexander Severus, strayed into certain errors of individual opinion which have made later generations hostile to his memory. But in spite of this, to Origen belongs the glory of having laid the foundations of almost every branch of Theology, and of having been the master of those who followed after; for many of the great Fathers of the Church were educated by his writings. His death was consistent with his life, for he succumbed in 254 to wounds inflicted upon him during the Decian persecution.

To the Alexandrian School also belong Saint Athanasius and the three Cappadocians, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus, who bring us to the most glorious epoch of Greek Church Literature. It was the "Golden Age," which produced spiritual works of such perfection, eloquence, profundity and originality, that not only were they to remain unsurpassed, but were to serve as patterns and models to posterity. Athanasius (d. 373), who was small of stature but mighty of spirit, was the fearless champion of Orthodoxy, for whose sake he fought for forty-five years, and was ten times sent into exile. There were times when he seemed to be abandoned by all and struggling alone against kings and peoples; but he was fighting for truth, and in the end truth triumphed. In the course of his troubled and wandering life he found time to write treatises appropriate to the times, to compose long epistles and apologies and to devote himself to the study of Holy Scriptures. His works are characterized by wealth and depth of meaning and by a severe dialectic method, though they are not always perfectly polished in style; for Athanasius was constantly in want, and wrote more often upon his knee than in the quietness of a study.

The battles waged for Orthodoxy by Athanasius were continued by the three Cappadocians. Basil (d. 379), whose mother, Emmelia, was a most devout woman, studied philosophy in Athens. There he made a life-long friend of his fellow-student, Gregory of Nazianzus, with whom he retired, when their philosophical studies were ended, to a hermitage in Pontus, in order to study the works of Origen, and to prepare himself for a theological career. Basil's learning and virtue soon raised him to the archbishopric of Caesarea, which long remained under his pastoral care. To him is due the credit for having founded the first poor-house in the world, called by his contemporaries the "Basilias," on which he expended his whole income. His love of Orthodoxy brought him into conflict with the Arian Emperor Valens, before whom he remained undaunted. His interpretative, doctrinal and ethical treatises, like his letters, shine out in the front rank of the world's literature, and justify the title bestowed on him, "torch-bearer of the universe." In his homilies on the Hexaemeron, he blends religion with natural science for the understanding of the people; and his Advice to the young on how to profit by the writings of the ancient Greek authors is worthy of study. His death was lamented, not by Christians alone, but even by Jews and pagans. His brother, Gregory of Nyssa (d. 394), excels in his works rather as a speculative philosopher and scholar than as a practical moralist. Philosophical speculation also characterizes the work of Gregory of Nazianzus (d. 390), already mentioned as the friend of Basil, whom the people named "the Theologian" on account of the sermons on the divinity of the Logos which he preached against the Arian heresy in the church of Saint Anastasia at Constantinople, in order to draw the current of popular opinion back into the channels of uncorrupted faith. So popular had Gregory become at that time that Theodosius the Great invited him to become Archbishop of Constantinople, a position from which he soon retired when he realized the perpetual machinations of which it was the center. Poet in his poetry and his sermons, Gregory was a poet in his life also, being the opposite to his practical and phlegmatic friend, Basil.

If the above-mentioned Fathers are brilliant examples of the Alexandrian School of thought, the School of Antioch is most worthily represented by John (d. 407), who for his great eloquence was surnamed the "Golden-Mouthed," or "Chrysostom." His father was the pagan Secundus; his mother, Anthousa, a Christian, who widowed early in life, entrusted his education to Libanius, the most famous sophist of the day. So great was the boy's devotion to learning that when asked by the pagans whom he would leave as his successor, Libanius answered: "John, unless the Christians steal him from us." But John, who had hardly known his father, followed his mother's religion and was baptized, later becoming a presbyter at Antioch, where he delivered sermons for many years. His speech was golden, and his life the life of a saint. His fame spread to the imperial court at the capital, whither the king, Arcadius, enticed him by a ruse, and persuaded him to become Archbishop of Constantinople, to the great joy of the people. But John was not only the protector of the poor and the oppressed; he was a fearless censor of crime and corruption in high places. This roused the enmity of the Empress Eudoxia, whose own conduct was not above reproach, and with the assistance of other sinners she contrived to banish the holy man to the depths of Armenia, where eventually he died in the midst of snow and ice and every kind of hardship. "Glory to God for everything," were his dying words. Chrysostom was the most popular and practical of the great Greek Church orators, and his sermons, which fill eighteen large volumes, may still be read with great profit and enjoyment today. He was not only an excellent psychologist, who probed deeply into the social evils of the world, but a commentator who in his interpretation of Holy Writ followed the literal and sober method which was the distinctive feature of the School of Antioch.

The recital of these few famous names constitutes not a tenth of what should be said upon this subject. Apart from the Fathers we have mentioned there are others, distinguished as historians (like Eusebius of Caesarea and Socrates), as catechists (like Cyril of Jerusalem), as commentators (like Theodoret of Cyrus), or as controversialists (like Cyril of Alexandria). Nor must we forget the eminent Latin Fathers of the West, among whom Ambrose, Jerome and Augustine shine out as stars of the first magnitude. But we have merely sought to give some idea of those exceptional men, who by the splendor of their learning and morality adorned the Church both in their life-time and after it.

Christianity is not only a revelation of divine truth; it is also the inspiration to a more virtuous life. That is why the spread of Christian principles was usually followed by a change in morals, due to the triumph of virtue over the natural corruption of mankind. An improvement in the position of women, the purification of the home, the liberation of slaves, the founding of philanthropic institutions, the abolition of public fights between gladiators and between wild beasts in the arena, an ever-growing sympathetic interest in the outcast, — all this was fruit of the Gospel seed. "See how they love one another, and how each is ready to sacrifice himself for his brother!" cried the pagans, marveling at the Christians' love. And even Libanius, taking as an example the mother of John Chrysostom, spoke his wondering admiration of the Christian women. It was, above all else, the courage of the martyrs, who went to their death singing as to a feast, that so greatly amazed the pagans; more than once, indeed, the executioners themselves became Christians and followed the martyrs to their death. Nor must we forget the civilizing influence of Christianity over whole peoples, such as the invaders who poured into Europe from the north during the fourth century, whose wild and barbarous energies were suddenly tamed and harnessed to the works of peace.

But corn and tares grow up together, and ancient habits are hard to put aside. The Christian Church did not lack sinners, who offered a striking contrast to her saints, and were a reproach to the Christian reputation. Most grievous of all evils was the hypocrisy of those who did not practice the faith that they professed. Such, in apostolic times, were Ananias and Sapphira; in the times of the persecutions, those whom fear caused to deny their faith and deliver to the persecutors certificates of paganism; and, during the years of peace, those pseudo-Christians who posed as Christians in order to curry royal favor. How many other sins were rife among the Christians, and especially in such great centers as Alexandria, Antioch and Constantinople, may be seen by anyone who reads the sermons of those Fathers who denounced from the pulpit the evils of their time. The great ladies were accompanied, when they went out, by crowds of serving-maids to advertise their wealth; their adornments were costly, and they frequently wore religious pictures embroidered on their elaborate robes. Magicians, astrologers and cheiromancers divided the sympathies of many Christians who were unable to abandon their old superstitions. The people had such a mania for the spectacles at the hippodrome, that even on Good Friday the services of Saint Sophia were disturbed by the shouting from the hippodrome at Constantinople. Shameless actors disgraced the stage with vile and licentious spectacles. To crown all, many bishops dishonored their calling by their passions, intrigues and conspiracies. It was bishops such as these who persecuted Athanasius, forced Gregory the Theologian to resign, and did their share in causing the banishment of John Chrysostom.

The Church, recognizing that leaven works but slowly, adopted a forgiving attitude towards these sinners, counseling repentance to them all, and only on rare occasions proceeding to extreme measures against perverted and unrepentant provokers of scandal. Even against these she did not close the gates of mercy, but evolved a special system of discipline for their assistance. From a sinner, who wished to return to the fold, the Church exacted, first, a public confession of his sins within hearing of everybody; secondly, that he should withdraw from the church and follow part of the service from behind the railings of the narthex; thirdly, that after a fixed time, he should enter the church and worship kneeling with the rest of the congregation, but without the privilege of partaking of Holy Communion; and lastly, when he had gone through all these stages of repentance, the Church received him back on an appointed day, exchanged with him the kiss of love, admitted him to Holy Communion, and restored him to his former position as a sound member, enjoying all her privileges. This was the attitude of the official Church towards sinners, based on the saying of our Lord that "joy shall be in heaven over one sinner that repenteth, more than over ninety and nine just persons" (Luke xv. 7). But the Montanists, amongst whom even Tertullian was enlisted in his later years, thought and acted otherwise. Tracing their origin to the turbulent and fanatical false prophet, Montanus, they did not admit repentance, and cut off all who after Baptism had lapsed into sin as finally doomed, considering, moreover, that anyone who received them was a corrupter of Christianity and an apostate.

The moral decadence into which the Roman Empire had sunk when Christianity appeared, the merciless persecutions directed by the pagans against the Christians, and a desire to worship God freely and unhindered, impelled some of the most ardent followers of the Gospel to withdraw from such a cruel and corrupt community. Retiring into desert places, they preached life-long celibacy, and made solitary prayer and communion with the Lord the aim and purpose of their life. These men were called hermits, monks, anchorites and ascetics. The first hermit mentioned in history is Anthony (d. 356), who in 270, when he was eighteen years old, happened to hear read in church, in his native town of Alexandria, the Gospel text: "If thou wilt be perfect, go and sell that thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven; and come and follow me" (Matthew 19:21). He immediately distributed the whole of his large fortune among the poor, and withdrew into the desert, where he spent his whole life, only appearing once or twice in Alexandria to preach against Arianism, and to convert hosts of idolaters to the Christian faith. His life has been related by his friend and admirer, Athanasius the Great. A contemporary of Anthony was Paul (d. 340), who came from the Thebaid, and whom Anthony discovered in the desert, where he had been hidden for seventy years.

At first these hermits lived alone in their cells or caves, entirely cut off from their fellows. Soon, however, Pachomius (d. 348), a pupil and follower of Anthony the Great, founded the more communal system which is called the "coenobite." Assembling all the scattered hermits on the island of Tabenna on the Nile, he imposed on them a common rule of prayer and fasting; and by introducing suitable forms of work among them, he made their life more practical and interesting. The system of Pachomius was soon transplanted to the hill of Nitria in Egypt by Ammon, to the Scythian desert by Macarius, to the desert of Gaza by Hilarion and to other places by other men. The great Fathers were admirers of the monastic life which they themselves had followed for some time as the best preparation for their ministry; and Basil the Great drew up a set of rules for the monastic life which are still followed by the monks of the Eastern Church. In the West, too, monasticism was introduced very early, thanks to the efforts of Ambrose, Jerome and Martin of Tours, but it was reorganized in 529 on an entirely new basis by Benedict, who made the monks not only scientific cultivators of the soil, but the invisible copyists and guardians of the literary treasures of antiquity. The Benedictines are the glory of the Western Church, which later produced and still preserves, other orders devoted to works of public benefit or to the achievement of Roman-Catholic predomination. Of quite a different kind were certain extraordinary modes of life into which Eastern monasticism degenerated, and of which the most curious was that of the "Stylites," who spent their whole life in a hut built on the top of a high pillar. Yet even these had their uses, for from the height of their tower they drew the attention of hundreds of semi-barbarous people, and attracted them to the Christian faith. One of the most conspicuous of the Stylites was Simeon (d. 422), who preached the Gospel in this way in Arabia.

Worship, which brings the believer into relation and communion with God, forms a component part of the moral life. In the earliest times, Christians met together for worship at private houses, where they received the Holy Sacraments and ate together the so-called "agapes," or love-feasts; during the persecutions, they took refuge in hiding-places, caves and catacombs. But when the persecutions came to an end, they began to meet together for worship in magnificent churches, which were often built and adorned by emperors, such as Constantine the Great, who embellished his newly-built capital with the churches dedicated to God's Wisdom, God's Peace and God's Power, and whose example was followed by many of his successors. In shape, the first buildings for public worship were quadrilateral and oblong, with the altar at the east end, and the porch at the west, and were known as "basilicas." In the course of time, wings were added on either side of the basilica, and thus the once quadrangular building took on the appearance of a cross. When for the first time Justinian placed a round dome on this cruciform building, the true Byzantine style of architecture was evolved, such as we see it in the beautiful church of Saint Sophia, built by Anthemius in 537. Icons were not unknown even in the earliest times, but they were at first of a symbolic character, as is evident from the catacombs. Thus, e.g., a dove stood for the Holy Spirit; and anchor for hope; a phoenix for the resurrection; a ship for the Church; a basket with loaves for Holy Communion; a fish was depicted to represent cryptographically our Lord; because each letter of its equivalent in Greek was taken as the initial of one of His attributes; thus: —

Later, scenes from the Bible began to appear in church decoration, and the icons of Christ, the Virgin Mary and the Saints. Some of these icons were made of mosaic, and so lasted indefinitely; but no statues were allowed in churches.

The most important day of worship in the week was Sunday, which from apostolic times had been consecrated to the memory of our Lord's resurrection. The chief festival of the year was Easter, later rivaled by Christmas Day, the celebration of which was introduced into the Eastern Church from the West during the fourth century. The great feast of Easter was preceded by the forty days of Lent, kept in memory of our Lord's forty-day fast in the wilderness, and during this period every Christian fasted according to his powers, some to a greater and some to a lesser degree. The Ascension and the day of Pentecost were celebrated respectively forty and fifty days after Easter. But during the first three centuries of Christianity, the Church was not agreed as to the exact day on which Easter should be celebrated. As our Lord had been crucified on the fourteenth of the Jewish month Nisan, on a Friday, and had risen again on the sixteenth, on a Sunday, some of the Christian Churches insisted on celebrating the Resurrection on the sixteenth day of Nisan, regardless of whether or not it was a Sunday; whereas others waited for the first Sunday following the sixteenth day of Nisan, unless that date itself happened to fall upon a Sunday. In order to settle this difference, the apostolic Father Poly carp undertook the long journey to Rome in 155; but the Pope, Anicetus, refused to yield, although he received Polycarp as a brother and allowed him to celebrate the Holy Liturgy with him. The question of Easter, with other questions relative to the order of the Church, was settled by the first Ecumenical Synod at Nicaea, which ruled that all the Churches should celebrate Easter on the same day; namely, the first Sunday following the first full moon after the spring equinox.

Though hampered by various internal and external obstacles, with which the following pages will deal, Christianity continued throughout the Middle Ages to conquer new territories. Most important of these for the Eastern Church were the Slavonic peoples. The first to receive the Gospel, as early as the seventh century, were the Serbs, Croats and Dalmatians, established in the Balkan Peninsula, of whom the Serbs, by the grace of God, have remained Orthodox, while the Croats and Dalmatians, uniting with the Hungarian kingdom, have passed into the jurisdiction of Rome, and embraced the tenets of the Western Church. Later, in the ninth century, Christianity spread to all the Slavonic tribes, who, driven back from the north by the Avars, had poured into Macedonia, Thessaly, the mainland of Greece and the Peloponnesus from the sixth century onwards, imperiling not only the national, but also the Christian character of the countries that they overran; for they were polytheists, and polytheism had long since died out in Greece, except in the region of Taygetos, where until the ninth century the Maniates still continued to worship idols in their mountain homes. But the Byzantine Emperors Michael III (842-867) and Basil the Macedonian (867-886) sent their generals to subdue the Slav invaders, who were, moreover, ravaged and weakened by continual epidemics, and gradually assimilated them both in nationality and religion to their Greek environment. Under the pressure of the Byzantine steam-roller, even the Maniates of Taygetos, the descendants of ancient Spartans, at last surrendered to Christianity; and idolatry ceased henceforth to exist in Hellenic soil.

Among other Slavonic tribes were the Moravians, who settled on German soil and came under German domination. But in 855 their king, Rostislav, freed them from the German yoke, and then appealed to the Byzantine Emperor Michael III, to send him Christian preachers; whereupon Michael, with the co-operation of the Great Patriarch Photius, sent out into Moravia the two famous missionaries and heralds of civilization to the Slavs, Cyril and Methodius, Greeks from Salonica who had practiced the monastic life in the Monastery of Polychronius at Constantinople. Not only did these two men preach God's Word among the Moravians; they also translated the Bible and the Byzantine Liturgy into the Slav tongue for the benefit of the newly-founded Moravian Church, which they placed under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, whose envoys they were. Unfortunately, in 867, Rostislav changed his mind, for political reasons, and turned to the Church of Rome, which in those days began to aspire to be the supreme ecclesiastical center of Christendom. The two fellow-missionaries were then summoned before the Pope, and Cyril stayed in Rome until his death, while Methodius was sent to continue his work as Archbishop of Moravia. As long as Methodius lived, he fought for the preservation of the Slavonic Bible and the Byzantine Liturgy in church use. After his death, however, the Roman See abolished them and replaced them by Latin, scornfully rejecting the Slavonic language as "barbarous and profane."

During the ninth century, too, the Bulgarians received Christianity from the same Byzantine source. The Bulgarians, a Tartar tribe, who had once lived on the shores of the Caspian Sea, migrated thence in the fifth century and, traveling up the Danube, established themselves permanently in the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula. They were at first a heathen people of savage customs, and even practiced human sacrifice; but from 800 onwards they began to progress along the ways of enlightenment, and under the influence of the native Slavs, adopted the Slavonic language and race consciousness. Their proximity to the Byzantine Empire was not at all pleasant to the Byzantines, whom they constantly harried; it had, however, an undoubtedly beneficial influence on the Bulgarians themselves by accustoming them to the atmosphere of Christianity. The first herald of Christianity to the Bulgarians was the sister of their king Boris, who had been initiated into Christian beliefs while she was a prisoner in Constantinople. After 861, however, Boris himself was the hardest and most systematic worker for the Christianisation of his people, having been persuaded on the one hand by a fearful plague from which he had been saved through prayer to Jesus Christ, and on the other by the terrible impression made on his mind by a picture of the Last Judgment, which had been shown to him by the missionary Methodius.

Boris announced to the Byzantine Emperor, Michael III., his intention of being baptized, and informed him that he, too, wished to adopt the name of Michael at his Baptism. He also begged the Emperor and the Patriarch Photius to send him Greek priests; and, having embraced Christianity with the help of the Byzantine Court in 863, he fought in the teeth of all opposition to make his subjects Christians, too. Three years later, the fear of losing his political independence caused him to turn away from his Byzantine neighbors and place his newly-founded Church under the jurisdiction of distant Rome. But when the Papal emissaries reached him, and fell upon the newly-planted vineyard like wild boars (according to the description of the holy Photius), Boris realized whence came the real danger to liberty, and in 869 he returned to the Mother Church. His work was continued by his successors, of whom the most famous was the Tsar of the Bulgarians, Simeon, who flourished in the tenth century. During his reign, the Bulgarians cultivated learning, and the Bulgarian Church enjoyed full independence, with Ochrida as her ecclesiastical center. But in 1018, the Byzantine Emperor Basil the Bulgaroctonus followed up his military victories over the Bulgarians by again subjecting the Bulgarian Church to the Patriarchate of Constantinople.

A much greater conquest for the Orthodox Church of the East was the introduction and dissemination of the Gospel in the vast territories of Russia, which took place a century later than the conversion of the Bulgarians. This important event was preceded by the various attempts made at different times, first of which may be reckoned the traditional visit of Andrew the Apostle to Scythia, and his preaching of the Gospel to the Scythians, who were the ancestors of the Russians. But these original seeds were quickly choked, and for centuries the Russians clung to their worship of Peroun, the god of thunder. Towards the middle of the ninth century, we hear of a second attempt to introduce Christianity into Russia, when the Russian princes, Oskold and Dir, setting out against Constantinople in their canoes, were overtaken and decimated in the Golden Horn by a fierce storm, and, returning terrified to Kiev, begged the Emperor and the Patriarch Photius to send priests to baptize them. Still another attempt was made later on by the Queen Mother Olga, who, when staying at Constantinople in 955, was baptized by the Patriarch Polyeuct and decided to return to her country and to evangelize it herself. But she, too, was laughed at for her pains; and it was left to Olga's grandson, Vladimir, to receive divine inspiration and to prove himself at last the "Isapostle" of Russia.

There is an ingenuous story that Vladimir, tired of his wooden god Peroun and wishing to introduce among his people a more edifying form of religion, invited the representatives of the chief religions of his time to appear before him, so that he might choose from among them the most desirable. He was not attracted by the representative of Mohammedanism, who forbade the drinking of vodka; neither was he satisfied with the persuasions of the representative of Judaism, whose followers were accursed and outcast wanderers, persecuted by all. He dismissed, too, the representative of Rome, with whom, he said, his ancestors had always refused to cultivate relations. But when the Greek philosopher Constantine explained to him the Orthodox Christian faith strengthening his eloquent arguments by a picture representing the Second Advent of our Lord, as Methodius had once done to the King of the Bulgarians, Vladimir could no longer contain himself, and, deeply moved, cried out: "Blessed are the righteous, and miserable indeed are sinners!" In order to strengthen his decision, he sent an official embassy of Boyars to Constantinople to study the matter on the spot and with their own eyes. They went, and attended a patriarchal Mass celebrated in the church of Saint Sophia; and so delighted were they with all that they saw and heard that, on their return to Russia, they told their king that while they were following the Byzantine Service they knew not whether they trod the earth or winged their way in Heaven.

Vladimir then addressed himself to the Byzantine Emperor, Basil, and begged him to grant him his sister Anna in marriage, to help him to carry out his godly plan, and to send him a number of priests to instruct and baptize the Russian people. Basil willingly agreed to these proposals, and to further God's kingdom on earth Anna sacrificed the palaces of Byzantium for the throne of a semi-barbarous people. The Russians tied their wooden god Peroun to the tail of a horse, and after dragging it thus insultingly through the streets threw in into the river in order to show that they had no further use for it. The banks of the Dnieper swarmed with thousands of people, Boyars and moujiks, who were baptized with their king while the priests from Constantinople, standing in mid-stream on rafts, recited the baptismal prayers. And in the year of grace 988 Russia officially, if not yet wholeheartedly, abjured idolatry and entered the community of Christian peoples. Vladimir died in 1015, leaving the continuation of his work to his successors. The most prominent of these was Yaroslav (1010-1054), who by encouraging learning, building churches and drawing up a code of laws, sought to raise his country to a condition more befitting to a Christian nation.

It must not, however, be supposed that the vast Russian territories were suddenly transformed as if by magic, nor yet that Christianity was able to establish its supremacy without a struggle. In the north-eastern regions of Russia, idolatry, backed by a divination of the black arts, presented an impenetrable front to the new ideas. Mongol supremacy, which from 1224 to 1480 dominated both Church and State, was a severe stumbling-block to the progress of the Gospel. For centuries, too, the Popes never ceased to covet the land, and pursued their goal of romanisation by sending out at times Dominican and Franciscan friars, at others whole crusades, as did Pope Innocent IV, who in the middle of the thirteenth century incited the king of Sweden to attack Russia. But in spite of everything, the Orthodox faith both survived and prospered. This was due on the one hand to the perseverance in the Orthodox faith of the Russian Kings and Emperors, who followed in the footsteps of the saintly Vladimir, and on the other to the zeal of the prelates of the Russian Church, most of whom were for centuries sent straight from Constantinople.

The first in date and importance of the religious differences that disturbed our Church in the Middle Ages are the iconoclastic disputes, which spread over nearly a century and a half. Leo, the Isaurian (717-741), though a brave Emperor and a patriotic man, was, unfortunately, ignorant of popular psychology and apt to be carried away to extremes. At that time, enthusiasm for the monastic life was draining the community of its worthiest citizens, the people devoted a great deal of their time to celebrating the festivals of saints, and the multiplication of images and other sacred objects was distorting the spiritual character of Christianity and drawing upon it the criticism both of Mohammedans and Jews. Seeing all this, Leo decided to carry out radical religious reforms, beginning with the images, which seemed to be the most urgent need. In acting thus, he was not entirely without justification, even from a Christian point of view; for the ignorant brought into the use of icons abuses which degraded the spiritual nature of the Christian religion and savored once more of idolatry. He forgot, however, that images are the books of the illiterate; that the art of painting has always served to inspire and perpetuate virtue; that man will always have need of material symbols, and that abuse of them does not preclude their prudent use.